Developments
in German Studies in the Asia-Pacific Region[1]
Particularly
during the past two decades education systems have been confronted by
globalisation and internationalisation, resulting diversification and
integration of foreign and trading relations, increasingly multicultural
societies, rapidly advancing technological developments and the dominance of
the English language internationally as the language of international trade,
and political and cultural communication. These changes have led to a process
of ongoing restructuring in education internationally, the ‘marketisation’ of
the education system and the determination of academic programmes according to
the principle of consumer demand. This article summarises the key innovations
that have occurred within the Germanistik or German Studies discipline in five
Asian-Pacific countries in response to these changing national and
international parameters. It is intended to contribute to the international
debate about the future structure and development of the discipline.
1. Introduction: International trends affecting foreign
languages in five Asian-Pacific countries[2]
1.1 Globalisation, internationalisation and the dominance
of English
The
overriding international trends during the past two decades of globalisation
and internationalisation have impacted on the teaching and learning of the
foreign language (FL) disciplines around the world. Using examples from
Key
characteristics of globalisation and internationalisation are the
diversification and integration of foreign and trading relations, global
networking, cultural dialogue and flexibility. These trends have changed the
world dramatically.
Political
and economic changes have had a major impact on the process of globalisation
and internationalisation. These changes include the formation of trading blocs
such as the European Union (EU), the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA); the collapse of the
communist regimes in the former Eastern bloc countries and the subsequent
democratisation and liberalisation of many of these countries; the
re-orientation of the countries included in this study, towards the
Asia-Pacific region; the liberalisation of China’s economic relations and
markets and the rapid industrial and technological development of Japan and
Korea.
Market-oriented
reforms have changed trading relations. Most parts of the world are now
(inter)linked by open trade, convertible currencies, foreign investment flows
and a commitment by governments to private ownership as the stimulus of
economic growth. Even in China, which is still governed by a Socialist system,
less than twenty percent of the labour force works in state-owned enterprises
(Sachs 1997: 39). The international employment market is characterised by
global networking and information sharing, career and spacial mobility,
life-long learning, upskilling, adaptation and flexibility.
Combined
with these developments has been an explosion of communications technology
internationally. This has increased and the sharing of information worldwide.
As telecommunications, trade and tourism have advanced internationally, English
has become the international lingua franca, the international language of
communication in practically all domains, while many other languages have been
marginalised.
The
processes of globalisation and internationalisation have led to this dominance
of English. It has become entrenched as the language of choice for academia,
business, science and popular culture and is the “unbestritten
interkontinentale internationale Sprache, die Hauptsprache des Welthandels, der
EDV, das Identitätssymbol der Jugendlichen” (Clyne 1999: 121).
Because
of its significance as the language of international trade, political and
cultural communication, English has become the compulsory first FL in Japan and
Korea and de facto in China. It is also one of the two official languages in
New Zealand and de facto the official language in Australia. All other
languages have been forced to compete with the status of English.
1.2 The ‘marketisation’ of education systems
Education
systems have also been confronted with the challenges of globalisation and
internationalisation, the resulting diversification and integration of foreign
and trading relations, increasingly multicultural societies, rapidly advancing
economic and technological developments and the dominance of the English
language These changes have led to a process of ongoing restructuring in
education as industrial societies become information societies. This process
has resulted in reforms based on the principles of user-pays (with the
introduction of tuition fees, for instance), rationalisation, efficiency,
competition, accountability and orientation towards consumer demand. These
reforms could be described as the ‘marketisation’ of education.
During
the past two decades there have been pronounced moves in this direction in
Australia, Korea and New Zealand.[3] Key characteristics have been a
move towards the principle of ‘user-pays’ and the determination of academic
programmes according to the principle of consumer demand. Academics are now
increasingly concerned with recruitment, budgetary and administrative issues.
Once students have to pay for a significant proportion of their education, it
is understandable that their choice of subject(s) cannot depend solely on personal interest, but
rather must be strongly influenced by the marketability of their
qualifications, or the perceived ‘usefulness’ of their discipline(s). The
reforms associated with the ‘marketisation’ of the education system (which have
been closely related international reforms and changes) have led to a situation
of competition between educational institutions and between subjects within
these institutions. This has posed major challenges for a number of
disciplines, particularly the FL disciplines.
1.3 The vocational focus
Associated
with these reforms has been a trend towards vocational or market-oriented
programmes in order to prepare graduates for the dynamic demands of the
employment market, a trend that has led to a lesser emphasis on the humanities
disciplines. The determination of academic programmes according to the
principle of consumer demand, and the vocational focus associated with ‘marketisation’
have led many to question the ‘usefulness’ of FLs, particularly the European
languages. Asian languages are in a relatively stronger position because they
are regarded as applicable to later employment in these Asian-Pacific
countries.
Historically
FL disciplines have been primarily literature-based. Germanistik in the
German-speaking countries, for instance, has traditionally fulfilled a cultural
function, and this model (with literary studies as the dominant component) was
essentially adopted by the countries in this study. During the past two
decades, however, the question of ‘general’ or ‘cultural’ education versus
career-oriented education has become more acute. All FL disciplines have been
forced to adapt the courses and programmes offered to reflect the diversification
of career options and the trend towards vocational courses.
German
Studies has responded to these challenges in a number of ways. In China, for
instance, the discipline has actively sought to benefit from the increasing
economic cooperation and links between China and Germany. This has given German
graduates new employment opportunities in tourism, foreign affairs and as
intermediaries between the two markets and cultures in joint ventures, in
addition to becoming translators, interpreters and university teachers as was
traditionally the case (Zhao 1999: 582). In Australia it is argued that there
is considerable potential for growth and development in relations between
German-speaking Europe and Australia, particularly as an intermediary and as a
base for German and European companies wishing to expand into the Asian markets
(Stanley et al. 1989: 18, 25;
Brooking 1995; Wabenhorst 1997). The same is true to a degree in the case of
New Zealand. Despite these opportunities, FL programmes are not considered by
students, parents, the general public and the business sector to be highly
relevant in obtaining employment. This is heightened in New Zealand and
Australia by a rather indifferent attitude on the part of most business people
towards foreign languages other than the Asian languages, which are given more
attention in the media and via government funding (Ingram 1986: 6-7, 23; Grant
1996: 5).
1.4 Reforms in the tertiary education system impacting on
FL disciplines
The
countries included in this study have undergone significant reforms in the
tertiary education sector that have, in turn, impacted on the teaching and
learning of FLs. In
Foreign
languages in the Asian education systems were historically often one of the ‘additional’
yet de facto compulsory subjects, so reforms of the regulatory framework of
degrees have led to fewer opportunities for students to learn German (and other
FLs) and have removed the element of compulsion. It is no longer compulsory to
learn a second FL in Japan and Korea, but is rather a matter of student choice.
In China the study of one FL is
compulsory and English is usually the language chosen. In New Zealand FLs are
not regarded as vital and are not compulsory at any level of education (except
where individual schools decide to make FLs a compulsory part of their
curriculum).
A
major factor impacting on the importance placed on the study of FLs is the role
they play in the university entrance examinations or the requirements for entry
to university level study. FLs play little part in these examinations in Korea
and Japan, so are not considered important (Takayama-Wichter 1989: 45-46; Koch
1996: 107-108). In Australia, on the other hand, FLs are included as examinable
subjects in the Tertiary Education Rank (TER) (and similar) examinations.
Despite this and despite promotion of the learning of languages other than
English (LOTE) in recent years languages have only been afforded a marginal
place in the Australian curriculum (Schauer 1990: 7-8).
Australia
is somewhat of a special case in comparison to the other countries in this
study, primarily as it is the only one to have developed and implemented an
explicit National Policy on Languages
(NPL) as well as policies recognising and promoting multiculturalism, as
compared to New Zealand’s emphasis on biculturalism in the curriculum and
elsewhere (Clyne 1981: 2; 1985: 1-4; 1991; Lo Bianco 1990: 51; Booth-Whiting
1993: 60-65). These policies were regarded as necessary given the number of
community languages regularly spoken in Australia and the impact of immigration
over the past two centuries, particularly the post-war immigration scheme, which
increased the diversity of languages spoken in Australia and eventually led to
moves towards multiculturalism. In addition, there has been an overall increase
in the non-English speaking population (especially in the Chinese, Arabic,
Spanish, Indonesian/Malay and Japanese language communities) during the 1980s
and 1990s (Djité 1994: 109).
However,
while the NPL emphasised the teaching of nine key FLs (Chinese, Arabic, French,
German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, Greek and Indonesian/Malay) in addition to
English and Aboriginal languages, the Australian
Languages And Literacy Policy (ALLP) emphasised those languages considered
economically beneficial. This was a significant move away from the cultural
significance of learning languages and the emphasis on multiculturalism, as it
resulted in an increasing emphasis on those languages considered economically
important, i.e. the Asian languages (Booth-Whiting 1993: 53-63, 77-81;
Fernandez et al. 1993: 33, 64-65;
Djité 1994: 21-28, 73-90; Truckenbrodt 1997: 18-20).
As in
Australia, a languages policy document was developed in New Zealand in
1991/1992 in response to political, economic and cultural factors (Waite 1992).
However, the recommendations contained in this report have not been implemented,
despite the need for a coherent and comprehensive approach to language issues.
Such a policy is clearly required given that the complexity of language
teaching and learning issues raises the question as to whether these can be
left to be regulated by market forces, particularly given the time and
resources required to learn a language fluently.
The
globalisation process that has led to the dominance of English as the
international language of communication has also led to the pragmatic
diversification of language options. This, in turn, has led to increased
competition for students and resource allocations between the different FLs offered.
Despite
the dominance of English in this
context, ‘niche’ markets for other languages do exist, given the increasing
diversification of world trade, increasing world travel and the worldwide
networking of information. Often these have developed for purely pragmatic
reasons, i.e. a perceived market for languages such as Spanish, Russian or
Japanese. What could be regarded as a
positive development for languages other than English actually exposes each
language to increasing competition and the need to justify its existence.
This
diversification of the FL offerings is clearly evident in New Zealand, where
the numbers of secondary school students learning German remained relatively
constant at approximately 8500 to 9000 from 1987 to 1996, while the numbers
learning Japanese and Spanish, two languages introduced more recently,
increased dramatically, mainly at the expense of French. The diversification of
languages taught at New Zealand secondary schools was paralleled by a similar
diversification in the courses in FLs offered at the universities. In 1965 New
Zealand universities offered programmes in French, German, Greek, Hebrew,
Italian, Latin, Maori, Russian, Swedish and Spanish, although not all were offered at all universities. By 1980,
Maori was offered at five universities, as was Latin. German and French
remained on offer at all six universities, while Japanese had been introduced at
Auckland, Massey, Canterbury and Waikato. Russian was offered at four
universities. Auckland had also introduced Chinese and Indonesian to its
offerings, Victoria had added Indonesian, Chinese and Spanish, and Canterbury
had added Chinese to the languages offered. Parallel to the trends at the
secondary school level, as the range of languages diversified, the enrolments
in French dropped and the number enrolling in Maori and Japanese increased
significantly. By the 1990s enrolments in the ‘traditional’ languages of French
and Latin had declined further, while enrolments in Japanese and Spanish had
increased considerably (Bancroft 1980: 212-219; Ministry of Education 1998;
Johnson 2000: 68, 71).
The
diversification process and the competition between languages have led to a
change in the status of German in the countries included in this study. German
has been overtaken by Japanese in virtually all these countries, a direct
reflection of the increased emphasis on the Asian languages as part of the
reorientation towards the Asia-Pacific region. German remained the dominant
second FL after English in Korea until the early 1990s, despite the
reintroduction of and increasing popularity of Japanese and Chinese. German is
now one of a group of five second FLs offered at most universities in Korea and
is, after English and Japanese, the third most popular. It remains an important
language for Law students but English is now the most important language for
the Medical and Science professions. Japanese and Chinese are increasingly
popular because of the linguistic similarities between these languages and
Korean, and more importantly for pragmatic considerations, such as more
opportunities for using the language(s) in trade or other employment.
Although
the number of languages offered at the tertiary level in these countries has
increased and diversified (significantly in Australia) since World War Two, a
relatively small number of FLs are offered at universities in China, Japan,
Korea and New Zealand. Somewhat paradoxically it appears that globalisation and
internationalisation have reduced the amount and status of FL learning in these
countries, in particular in Japan and Korea. Further evidence of this is that
German courses are now often taught in Japanese, Korean or Chinese in the three
Asian countries and in English in Australia and New Zealand in order to appeal
to a broader range of students and thus keep enrolments at an acceptable level.
This measure, however, lowers the overall linguistic competence of graduates.
2. Key Developments within the Discipline of German
Studies in Asia-Pacific
These
diverse, interrelated and changing regional and international parameters as
well as the framework, context and national parameters (historical, political,
economic, educational and social) have impacted on the context and concept of
the FL disciplines, including German Studies, in the countries included in this
study: Australia, China, Japan, New Zealand and South Korea. The recent changes
in the parameters under which the discipline operates reflect the international
economic and political reality. In response to the changing parameters there
are a number of identifiable responses common to the five countries included in
this study, although to differing degrees.
In
New Zealand, Japan and Korea the discipline has been relatively slow to respond
to the changing parameters. In China the situation of the discipline is
relatively positive with potential for further expansion given the large
population base and the increasing political, economic and cultural relations
between Germany and China and increasing cooperation with German companies in
joint ventures. German also remains a compulsory FL for students of other
disciplines at some Chinese universities. In general, German departments in
Australia have reacted quicker and more decisively than those in the other
countries, introducing interdisciplinary programmes at Queensland and Monash
universities in the late 1980s. In contrast to the development in other
countries, several Australian universities, such as Monash and Melbourne,
increased their student enrolments during the 1990s, due partially to the
historical links with German in Victoria, the organised and strong promotion of
the subject, and the innovative range of programmes and courses offered.
The
following depicts the key developments in German Studies using examples from
the selected five Asian-Pacific countries.
2.1 Amalgamation of German departments into larger units
One
such response has been the amalgamation or incorporation of the German
departments into larger administrative and curricular units, such as European
Studies Departments or Schools of Languages and Cultures. Often the individual
departments had little choice about this as the level of available resources
and student demand essentially forced them to either amalgamate or face
dissolution, particularly in
In
Australia, administrative rationalisation has prompted a distinct move back to
the larger departments or schools of European or Modern Languages, Literatures
and Cultures, etc. One such example is the amalgamation in 1992 of the Germanic
Studies Department at Melbourne with Russian to become the Department of
Germanic Studies and Russian. Further redefinition occurred at Melbourne in
1993 with the establishment of the School of Languages comprising the
departments of French and Italian Studies, Germanic Studies and Russian,
Japanese and Chinese, Applied Linguistics and Language Studies and the Horwood
Language Centre “in order to provide for greater interaction and sharing of
expertise in the field of languages within the University” (Gassin 1992: 21).
Another
example is that of the University of New England, where German became part of
the School of Modern Languages in the early 1990s, then part of the Department
of European Languages and Cultures in 1996 and has now become part of the
School of Languages, Cultures and Linguistics.
In
Korea, the restructuring of faculties has led in most cases to the amalgamation
of departments. In some instances the languages were amalgamated according to
geographical areas into European Studies departments (French and German) as
opposed to Pacific Studies (English and Japanese). In other cases FL faculties
were established with English being the clear favourite as a major subject and
the less popular languages (French, German and Chinese) becoming mainly
supporting subjects (Wollert 1999: 10).
Structural
changes have occurred in five of the six German departments/sections in New
Zealand in response to the institutional reforms and restructuring during the
past two decades. These five departments have amalgamated with other (mainly
European) language, literature and linguistics departments. At the University
of Auckland, the School of European Languages and Literatures was formed in
February 1995 and comprises the former French, Germanic Languages &
Literature, Italian, Russian and Spanish departments. A similar development has
occurred at Victoria University in Wellington. At Massey University, the Department
of European Languages was established in 1993 and comprised French and German.
Spanish was introduced in 1996. At Otago University, the German Department
became part of the School of Languages in 1994 and now has become part of the
School of Language, Literature and Performing Arts. The German Department at
the University of Waikato became part of the Department of European and
Hispanic Studies along with French and Spanish in 1997.
2.2 Diversification of the German courses and programmes
offered
The
diversification of the German courses and programmes offered to include
components such as film and media, political history, the study of literature
in context or in translation, practical applications of German, contemporary
German and European issues and linguistics is another such response. In some
cases in
German
at the University of Waikato moved from a major focused primarily on
language, literature and culture in
1986/1987 (whereby the cultural studies courses offered encompassed at least in
part the issues facing ‘modern’ Germany) to a major in language, literature and
contemporary social, political, economic and educational German and European
issues. And at Victoria University, students majoring in German were encouraged
to enrol in both the literature and the ‘Economy, Society & Culture’
streams as a means of broadening the scope of their study of German and of
determining what the main focus of their later studies should be. Graduate
study, however, was only possible as an extension of the literature stream. At
Canterbury University, the Department attempted to adapt and strengthen the
cultural component of its offerings in order to attract and retain students by
offering literature and society courses in English (Lopdell 1995: 147).
In
China Germanistik has developed into a diverse and inclusive subject that
combines ‘traditional’ Germanistik, Deutsch
als Fremdsprache (DaF), German
Studies and translation and interpretation training. In order to diversify the
programmes offered for students majoring in German courses in Foreign
Economics, Business German, German Politics and International Cultural
Relations, for instance, were introduced (Timmermann 1999: 484-485; Hernig
2000: 157-158). Similarly at Keimyung University in Taegu, South Korea, the department
is no longer oriented merely towards language and literary studies, but also
offers a programme in German Studies (Wollert 1999: 10).
Stoljar
(1998: 110, 1993: 387-389) describes the introduction of new aspects, such as
film and media studies, the arts and theatre, politics, history and the study
of literature and language in context, into undergraduate courses as the
development of ‘area’ or ‘German Studies’ in Australia. These changes, aimed at
increasing the attractiveness of the subject and the level of student
satisfaction and interest, are unlikely to be reversed given the amalgamations
of German into larger units.
At
the University of Western Australia, the staffing levels in German were reduced
in the early 1990s primarily as a result of the steady decrease in students
studying German at school. This led to a reduction in the funding and to the
reduction and rationalisation of the German courses offered, including:
· a reduction in the number of classes
and increased class sizes with a corresponding decrease in teaching time;
· a focus on language work before
students tackle literature and cultural studies; and
· increased emphasis on 20th
century literature in the second and third years while the older literature and
culture is taken in third year or honours.
These
changes formed part of a significant change of orientation within the
department, which included an increase in the variety of offerings, an emphasis
on language acquisition, the introduction of European Studies and the
introduction of culture courses in English for language students. In the mid
1980s courses offered focused on the study of German language, literature and
civilisation. The department now regards its priorities as (i) contemporary
written and spoken German language, (ii) contemporary German culture, including
film and internet, and (iii) historical German culture, including literature
and film. The teaching programme was redesigned in 1995 and 1996 to reflect
this reorientation.
2.3 Development of vocationally-oriented courses and
programmes
The
development of vocationally-oriented courses and programmes has been one
significant innovation within the discipline in the Asia-Pacific region. One
example is the four-semester programme in Business German introduced at the
Another
example of vocationally-oriented courses are the in-service courses, including
the intensive live-in courses in German language and LOTE methodology offered
by the German Department at the University of Queensland in conjunction with
the Queensland Department of Education (Fernandez et al. 1993: 43-52; Tisdell
1999).
Education
in China has, in general, a more vocational or practical (as opposed to a
purely academic) focus. The development of German in China is closely linked
with the transfer of expertise and technology and cooperation between China and
the German-speaking countries (Neuner 1986; Hess 1992a: 352-358; 1996: 29-36;
2000: 3, 9; Steinmetz 1995: 537-538). There has been and is no clear division
between Germanistik and DaF (in its
widest sense) in China because of this historical functional emphasis on the
use of German (i.e. as an instrument of importing and assimilating scientific
and technological knowledge) as compared with the traditional educational and
cultural emphasis in Japan and Korea. Many German programmes now offered in
China are based on the principle of combining the study of German with a
vocational or professional subject.
German
as a FL courses are offered parallel to the major subject, particularly for
students from the scientific and technical disciplines. One such programme is
the Diplomteilstudiengang Fachdeutsch
Technik developed in 1991 by the German Language Centre at Zhejiang
University (Hess 1992a: 437-464; 1992b: 353-367; Steinmetz 1995: 532). The
objective of this programme is to train Chinese engineering students so they
can communicate competently in the technical fields necessary for their careers
and academic study without requiring a translator or interpreter, who does not
have subject specific knowledge. In the three-year programme, which runs
parallel to the students’ second through fourth years of study in their major
subject, students are taught the skills that the employment market demands,
such as the ability to write business correspondence, a high degree of
flexibility and the ability to network with other cultures. Students also
undertake an industry internship during the summer holidays between years three
and four.
One
fundamental characteristic is the three-phase model of language learning
incorporated in this programme, that is, (i) the attainment of basic German
language skills; (ii) the introduction to technical and scientific terminology
along with continued tuition in general German; and (iii) the transition to the
learning of technical terminology in German (Steinmetz 1995: 544).
The
postgraduate level programme for specialist translators and interpreters at
Tongji University is another example of the vocational programmes introduced by
the discipline in China during the past two decades (Fluck & Liang 1989:
97-101). This programme is designed for graduates of technical subjects who
have at least some basic German skills, and includes a Praktikum. Courses in Modern German, an introduction to specialist
or technical language, mechanical engineering or electronics, translation and
interpretation, Chinese-German contrastive linguistics and English are
compulsory. Optional courses include economics, business correspondence and
conferencing techniques in foreign trade.
There
have also been a number of innovations in New Zealand that have increased the
vocational offerings of the German programmes. At the University of Waikato,
the German Department was involved in the development of the International
Management Programme (IMP) in the early 1990s (Knüfermann 1993: 514). Students
undertaking the IMP major in Management Studies are required to take at least
eight courses from those offered by the (European or Asian) language departments/sections
(usually those papers required for the major in that particular discipline). At
Otago University a major in International Business Studies was introduced in
2000 (within the Management offerings), of which FL and culture courses form an
integral component.[4]
2.4 Development of interdisciplinary and integrated
programmes
The
development of interdisciplinary and integrated programmes, such as German
Studies or European Studies, has been perhaps the most significant response
within the discipline during the past two decades.[5] The development of such programmes
is a direct reflection of the changing situation in
When
defining a programme as ‘integrated’ one must clarify whether it is simply a
modified major comprising diverse components or whether it is a fully
integrated one, where all papers within the degree form part of the designated
programme. There are clearly a number of difficulties associated with diverse
components being included in a major, including the limited number of hours
that can be allocated to the different components given the total number of
papers (= courses, normally the equivalent of eight) required for a major in
New Zealand, for instance.
A
major in European Studies as part of the Bachelor of Arts degree (B.A.) or as
part of the B.A. in European Studies was introduced at the University of
Western Australia in 1995. In the former, a European language is not required.
In the latter, however, at least two years of a European language must be
studied concurrently. The first-year units focus on the societies and cultures
of contemporary Europe, are taught from an interdisciplinary perspective and
provide a comparative framework for units on European history, politics,
literature, languages and culture taught in various departments of the faculty.
Units in years two and three deal with central aspects of European civilisation
on the basis of literature, film, social theory and historical texts. The
introduction of this programme was part of a significant reorientation within
the department and the School of European Languages at the University of
Western Australia in recent years.[6]
At
the University of New South Wales, an integrated Bachelor of Arts (European Studies)
degree programme combining the study of European languages (one of French,
German, Modern Greek, Russian or Spanish), European Studies (including courses
on European integration, central and eastern Europe since 1989 and developments
in divided Europe and Germany from 1945 to 1989) and a Social Science
discipline was introduced during the mid 1990s.
A
further example of an interdisciplinary programme introduced in the region
during the past two decades is the multidisciplinary European Studies (B.A.)
programme at the Hong Kong Baptist University (Widera 1992; Hess 1996: 50-56;
1999a). This has two primary aims: (i) to give students knowledge of the basic
features of the European world, and (ii) to prepare them for future employment
in the fields of European-Asian relations. This is primarily a Social Sciences
programme with Political Science as the core discipline around which the other
subjects (including language studies) are grouped. The first four semesters of
the German stream are spent in Hong Kong, the next two in Germany or
Switzerland and the final two in Hong Kong. Students are required to research
and write a final dissertation or Honours project, which is the synthesis of
all these elements, to complete the programme.
The
first four semesters consist of language training using Themen neu 1, 2 and 3, German business training using dialog beruf 1 and 2 and European readings, complemented by computer studies papers
and other papers from the university’s business school. The paid internship in Germany
(mainly in private enterprise) is preceded by six months at the Institut für Internationale Kommunikation
(IIK) at the Heinrich Heine
University in Düsseldorf. The IIK
programme comprises intensive language preparation for the internship phase and
courses in European integration, European economic and trade policies, and
industrial, commerce and public administration in Germany.
After
returning from the internship, language training is not separated artificially.
Students undertake German study modules, which introduce them to basic concepts
of economic and industrial activity, such as organisational models of
management and production, sales, distribution and marketing, legal structures,
and human resource management, business correspondence and presentation
training. Practice and theory are combined and references to internship
experiences made throughout. An additional business elective subject taught in
English may also be included.
The
cultural studies segment includes papers such as ‘The German-speaking Area of
Europe’ (which discusses topics such as denazification, the economic miracle,
the generation of 1968 and German unification), ‘Europe: unity and diversity’, ‘Foundations
of Political Science’, ‘Government and Politics of France/Germany, the UK’, ‘Contemporary
Problems of Eastern Europe’, ‘Nineteenth/Twentieth Century European History’
and ‘Growth and Structure of the European Union’.
To
bridge the gap between the more practical industrial management courses and the
theoretical political science component, a course on ‘The political economy of
modern Germany’ is compulsory. This includes discussion of the social market
economy, the social security system, and the future of the industrial society
in Germany. These issues are followed up in a special topic course, where
German domestic issues are put into perspective by discussing their relevance
to Hong Kong’s trade patterns and the parallels with local social trends (Hess
1999a: 88):
the study of
The
Honours project can be written in German or English. To date students in the
German stream have written about topics such as contemporary youth culture and
the 1968 student movement, foreign guest workers, domestic and international
reunification issues, Germany’s holocaust legacy, the German welfare state, the
dual education system, information technology policies, environmental issues
and case studies of their internships There are three distinct groups of
topics: economic and or political, social sciences and those based on
internships, all central characteristics of this programme.
In
Japan, a programme in German for students majoring in Law or Political Science
in the Law Faculty at Keio University was introduced after the effects of the
1991 reforms and the curriculum changes in 1993 at Keio began to become evident
(Sambe 1996; 197-206; Mandelartz & Yamamoto 1999: 11-12; Richter 1999).
This programme comprises the major subject (Law or Political Science), FLs,
Humanities and Social Science subjects and a number of elective papers,
(including FLs, Law, Political Science, Science, subjects from other faculties
and sport).
Characteristics
of this programme include intensive language classes for three years (four
double periods, each 90 minutes long per week); the use of computers and
audiovisual equipment in classes, cooperation between the lecturers from
different disciplines; an ‘Introduction to Area and Culture Studies’ course,
small classes, more freedom of choice for students in designing their own
programme of study and the opportunity to visit a German-speaking country in
the summer (comprising a four-week language course and an individual research
project). The overall aim is to ensure that the students are competent to use
their language and cultural skills in their later careers and to be able to act
as intermediaries between the two cultures.
A
number of New Zealand universities have also introduced programmes or majors in
European Studies during the past decade. The major in European Studies within
the B.A. at Victoria University comprises three language courses up to the
third year level (in one of French, German, Italian or Russian) plus three
other non-language papers with a European component (for instance, in History,
Geography, Politics or literature). Core courses include ‘Introduction to
European Studies’ at the first year level and ‘The Making of Modern Europe’ at
the third year level (Smith 1997: 70-71). Victoria University also introduced a
major in Modern Languages comprising two or more languages and linguistics in
the early 1990s.
At
the University of Waikato students could undertake a programme in European
Studies within the existing regulatory framework of the B.A. degree during the
1990s. This continues with minor modifications. This interdisciplinary
programme comprised courses in four different areas: European languages,
History or Politics, Management Studies and ‘Culture’.[7] The programme was designed to
familiarise New Zealand students with the complex cultural, historical,
political and social facets of one of the world’s major regions. It was
promoted as an integrated programme of study, not a major in European Studies
as is the case at the other New Zealand universities. A student might major in
History with Spanish as their first support, Management Studies as the second
support and Linguistics as their third, a combination which could be useful
when seeking employment in the diplomatic or foreign affairs and trade sectors.
Another
aspect of the shift towards German Studies in the European context by the
German Section at Waikato has been the recent development of applied research
projects at the graduate level. The emphasis of these is to research issues
where New Zealand and Germany are interconnected in the business, tourism,
education and cultural sectors, and to make use of the language, area and
cultural knowledge acquired by language students. Through these projects
students gain insights which enhance employment opportunities, while at the
same time furthering their academic studies. Examples of such projects include:
a study of the marketing of New Zealand language schools in Germany; an
investigation into the language support and education given to new migrants in
New Zealand and Germany; and research into the work of New Zealand and German
trade and affiliated organisations.
These
applied projects were developed partially due to the demand placed on language
departments internationally to realise the “relevance of their discipline[s] to
the ‘real world’” (Victoria 1996: 9). Another reason behind the introduction of
graduate research projects has been the realisation that language students tend
to be more culturally aware and,
therefore, have greater ‘access’ to and interaction with other people and
cultures. Research projects, which extend the students’ knowledge of a culture are
a positive addition to integrated language studies and should give a
competitive advantage both in the employment market and in further research or
study (Knüfermann 1998).
The
Research Centre for Germanic Connections with New Zealand and the Pacific was
established at Auckland University in September 1999 to encourage “research
into the links, both contemporary and historical, between Northern and Central
Europe on the one hand and New Zealand and the Pacific on the other.”[8] This is an interdisciplinary body
closely associated with the Department of Germanic Languages and Literatures
and the School of European Languages and Literatures and gives students,
primarily at the graduate level, the opportunity to undertake and publish
interdisciplinary research.
2.5 The focus on offering key programmes or components
Another
response adopted by many of the German departments or sections in the Asia-Pacific
region has been to focus on key programmes or components, such as language
teaching at the
In
China, the Foreign Languages University Beijing offers Germanistik or German as
a Foreign Language in several streams after the students’ basic studies. The
streams offered are Foreign Policy and Foreign Affairs, Economic Relations with
Foreign Countries and Foreign Trade and Language and Literature. All courses
are taught in German and concerned primarily with German-Chinese relations.
Students must complete a number of courses in the other streams and thus gain
an insight into the broader discipline. In addition there are common language
courses for all students. Another such example in China is that of the German
department at the Foreign Languages University Tianjin, which focuses on
training translators and interpreters (Kaufmann 1998: 499-500; Hernig 2000:
157-158).
The
German department at Dokkyo University, one of the largest German departments
in Japan, offers students three possible study programmes: the traditional
literature, language and linguistics, or German art history and philosophy or
German history, politics and sociology (Takahashi 1990: 65-66; Beißwenger 2000:
77-78).
The
Department of German at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand has offered
courses in three areas: German language acquisition, German literary texts, and
literature and society during the past two decades.[9] In the 1990s, however, due to the
reduced numbers of students enrolling in German and an apparent reduction in
demand for the literature papers, the Department felt that it had to
concentrate on language courses as the central part of its teaching programme.
In addition to focusing on the teaching of the language, the department has
attempted in recent years to adapt and strengthen the cultural component of its
offerings (for which no knowledge of German is necessary) in order to attract
and retain students (Bartholomae 1990: 403-409; Lopdell 1995: 147).
2.6 Introduction of DaF
or Interkulturelle Germanistik
programmes
The
introduction of DaF or Interkulturelle Germanistik programmes
is another response of the discipline to the changing parameters.
In
Tenri
University in Japan (where the Foreign Languages Faculty was restructured into
a Faculty for Intercultural Studies) offers a further example of the
development of intercultural courses. The German department has four streams:
Everyday culture, Language culture, German History and German Society. Each
study programme comprises subject specific seminars and lectures, and an
interdisciplinary course ‘German Communication’ is offered for those students
majoring in the subject (Wakisaka 2000: 124-125).
In
New Zealand, only the University of Waikato has introduced courses in DaF for graduate students and for German
students of DaF who come to New
Zealand for a semester or a year abroad and or to complete the Praktikum component of their degree
programme (Knüfermann 2000: 513-514). These courses include ‘Rahmenbedingungen
des Fachs Deutsch in Neuseeland. Zur Situation des Deutschlehrers im Ausland
(DaF)’, ‘Praktikum DaF’, ‘Spracherwerb und Literatur an
neuseeländischen Schulen und Hochschulen (DaF)’ and ‘Deutschsprachige Einwanderer in Neuseeland (DaF)’. The introduction of these courses
has been part of the overall re-orientation in Waikato’s German Studies
programme and primarily due to the research and teaching interests of the then
Chairperson of Department/Head of the German Section.
2.7 Changes in the language courses offered
Another
discernable trend within the discipline in these five countries has been
changes in the language courses offered, including the use of modern media
(particularly in
In an attempt to standardise the
language programme offerings in China a nationwide curriculum for the basic
language competencies of students majoring in German was introduced in the late
1990s. Some departments have introduced or experimented with projects using the
internet in LK courses. In the
past teachers had limited opportunities to include up-to-date information and
topics in LK courses in China
because of the difficulties with the postal system and newspaper subscriptions.
However, in the age of the internet, this is becoming less of a problem
(Saarbeck et al. 1994: 592). Although the German department at the Foreign Languages
University in Guangzhou introduced computer and internet work in 1998/1999
(Thelen-von Damnitz 2000), the pilot project had to be stopped because of high
costs.
At
Hokkaido University in Japan there has been a move to reduce the number of
teachers in the various parts of the courses and to increase the cooperation
and coordination of textbooks, teaching materials, etc. between those teachers.
Other initiatives introduced in Japan include the use of international language
proficiency examinations (such as the Österreichische
Sprachdiplom Deutsch) and certificates to increase the motivation and
resulting communicative competencies of the students; the use of various forms
of media to and the introduction of the Diplom
Deutsch in Japan (DDJ), a
nationally recognised certificate of attainment (Reinelt 1996: 79-87;
Mandelartz 1999: 8; Richter 1999: 113-123).
In
New Zealand, the number and type of German language courses offered at the
tertiary level have increased and diversified during the past two decades. At
the undergraduate level at Auckland, students with advanced oral and writing
skills could undertake a Sprachpraktikum designed
to further develop and extend their skills o as well as a course in ‘German in
Business’ and another on ‘Translation in Theory and Practice’. At Otago the
German section is emphasising the use of modern technologies including an
online 100 level German culture paper, ‘Gateway to Germany’ (Smith 1997: 68;
Alm-Leqeuex 1998).
By
the mid 1990s, students at most New Zealand universities were able to sit the
internationally recognised certificates of German language proficiency, Zertifikat Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Kleines Deutsches Sprachdiplom and Großes Deutsches Sprachdiplom. Students
were prepared for these as part of the core language courses offered or through
separate courses offered specifically for this purpose. One requirement of the
KDS is the writing of essays based on German fiction.[10] In 1997 two novels, Jauche und Levkojen by Christina
Brückner and Das Feuerschiff by Lenz,
were studied as part of the 300 level language course at Canterbury in
preparation for the KDS.
2.8 Cooperative ventures and programmes
A further response of the discipline
in the Asia-Pacific region has been the development and promotion of
cooperative ventures with German companies, organisations and institutions in
order to add a new dimension to the programmes offered. These dimensions would
often otherwise have been unaffordable given the available resources and
student demand. At Tongji University in China regular block courses in Business
German are taught by visiting LektorInnen from University of Marburg as part of the project ‘Wirtschaftsdeutsch’ that was introduced in
1995. Another such partnership is that between Hunan College of International
Culture and the IIK in Düsseldorf,
which offers specialist preparatory courses in
Another such initiative, established
with German financial support in 1985, was the Ausbildungszentrum für
deutsche Sprache Beijing (AfdS) at the University for Foreign Trade
and Foreign Relations in Beijing (Schlenker 1996). The AfdS specialises in training Chinese
managers and experts, who work in the area of economic and technological
cooperation, in the language and area studies skills they will require for
further education or training programmes in Germany, including the ability to:
·
communicate in the workplace
and in everyday life in Germany;
·
hold simple prepared technical
or subject specific conversations;
·
follow reports and explanations
at normal tempo of speaking speed;
·
independently analyse different
kinds of texts using appropriate reading
techniques;
·
explain simple technical
processes and plants or describe economic data and facts; and
·
write private and official
letters in the correct format.
2.9 Diversification of the opportunities for contact with
the target language and cultures
As
part of the (re)definition of the discipline’s offerings the need to increase
and diversify the opportunities for contact with the target language and
cultures has been repeatedly expressed. Opportunities for students to study and
or work in German-speaking countries continue to be developed and promoted
thereby increasing the usefulness of the language and increasing the diversity,
attractiveness and market-orientation of the discipline. Links with the Handelskammer, other industry and
economic associations, social policy organisations and cultural organisations in
the German-speaking countries are being developed. The Goethe Institut
Melbourne has developed a database of the opportunities, organisations and
networks that exist in
Extramural
activities formed an important part of the study of German throughout the
period concerned in all five countries, and the range of opportunities for
students to utilise their skills outside of formal study increased during the
same period. Most departments/ sections offered their students a number of
opportunities to live, study and or work in German-speaking countries. The
German Section at Waikato, for example, offered its students a Vacation Work
Scheme, whereby students work in the Hospitality Industry in the Black Forest.
Other activities include the Deutsche
Woche at Monash University in Australia (Fernandez et al. 1993: 40-42),
scholarships and exchange programmes of various tenures (awarded by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), Goethe-Institut and the German, Swiss and Austrian governments, for
instance), teaching assistantships at German high schools or work placements in
international firms, Goethe-Institut
courses, seminars by visiting academics, German, Swiss or Austrian clubs,
sports teams, drama groups and choirs, film evenings, performances by visiting
German music and theatre groups, German camps, departmental social evenings,
dinners and conversation groups and Goethe Society activities.
Some departments have even considered
making a period of study abroad a compulsory part of their degree programmes.
The National German Summer School offered by Goethe-Institut in Australia provides another opportunity for increased exposure to
the language, as do the intensive six-week summer school programmes offered by
Melbourne and Monash, which can be credited towards students’ degrees. At
Adelaide, students are encouraged to participate in the four-week Summer School
in Germany comprising an intensive language course at the Prolog Language
School in Berlin and a cultural programme.[12]
During
the past two decades there has been an increasing tendency for
departments/sections to emphasise these extramural activities, in particular
the opportunities for overseas travel, work and study, as ‘drawcards’ to
students choosing whether or not to study German. In New Zealand the need for
public relations and marketing of the programmes has become increasingly
evident in recent years, particularly as there has been an increased tendency
during the 1990s within the tertiary sector overall to focus on the
marketability and applicability of degree programmes. The Humanities
disciplines have continued to feel the impact of this trend, particularly given
the perceived lack of professional orientation of the language (and indeed most
Humanities) degree offerings and students’ reluctance to accumulate high debt
if they cannot identify the professional value of the qualification. Students
at the school level appear poorly informed about tertiary study options
including languages. Many of them appear to hold the mistaken view that they
must focus on one discipline only (such as Law, Medicine or Management) and
subsequently are not aware of the opportunities or value of combining the study
of a particular major discipline with that of a language.
As a
result there has been an increasing trend towards explicit Public Relations and
promotion of the value of FLs overall and, in particular, the European
languages (Bartholomae 1990: 409-410; Knüfermann 2000: 508). This has included
measures such as:
· promoting the available overseas
travel, study and work opportunities;
· promoting the unique characteristics
of each university’s programme;
· countering the perception of
languages degrees or humanities degree as being non-vocational, by recommending
that students enrol in language courses in addition to their Law or Management
studies; and
· branding the department/section(s)
as being different from the other providers of language studies.
The
Department of European and Hispanic Studies at the
· a departmental social evening to which
the national language advisors and teachers of European languages in the
greater Waikato area were invited;
· a series of academic lectures at the
University designed to heighten the Department’s profile within the academic
community;
· an Information Day where secondary
school students visited the Department to obtain information on their chosen
subjects;
· a series of school visits;
· a number of magazine articles (both
in English and German language papers, including the EU Newsletter published in
Canberra);
· an Information Evening for
(potential) students of European languages, their parents, teachers and career
advisors:
· and in November 1999 the Department
hosted a seminar on “New Zealand and its relations with Europe”, to which
speakers on the international relations between New Zealand and Europe,
business, tourism and European languages and European languages in the
educational context were invited.
3. Future Developments: The Example of
It is
evident from the responses of the discipline in the different countries that
irrespective of national differences the pressures exerted on the discipline in
these five countries by the process of globalisation and internationalisation
are very similar. The discipline of German Studies cannot isolate itself from
the developments occurring internationally, such as the increasing dominance of
English as the international lingua
franca, the trend towards vocational subjects and the increasingly
pragmatic justification for the learning of foreign languages as opposed to the
traditional cultural justification of the study of foreign languages. Nor are
these developments reversible in the foreseeable future.
Significant
and systematic changes are needed to re-orientate the discipline within the
overall internationalisation process and to ensure the discipline is forward-looking
and proactive.
The
responses outlined illustrate the clear trend internationally towards the
development of niche markets and interdisciplinary programmes through which the
discipline can contribute productively to the further development of the
respective countries. Consistent with this, increasing internationalisation and
interdependence place special demands on the development of (intercultural or
interdisciplinary) German Studies, in order that students can fully appreciate
and relate to the working habits, thought patterns, lifestyle and other aspects
of the German-speaking cultures (Picht 1987: 43-44). German Studies within a
clearly structured degree programme (such as the Bachelor of Arts), which
combines the study of European languages and cultures with the study of
economics, history, political science and geography, for instance, opens up new
career possibilities for German language students (Knüfermann 1993: 515).
The
responses of the discipline in these five countries, however, also show that
German Studies in the sense of Germanistik continues to hold an important
place. The value of literary studies, language studies and cultural studies in
its broadest form continues to be regarded as an essential dimension of the
discipline.
The
discipline of German Studies in New Zealand cannot remain isolated from these
international trends and the necessity to respond. The discipline, therefore,
must take cognisance of these developments and respond to the pressures by
clearly defining its function and role within the environment of interrelated
political, economic and educational parameters. It is not sufficient to point
to the cultural value of individual languages. The traditional concept of
Germanistik is only one part of the subject. In other words, while the
discipline of German Studies in New Zealand should retain a strong cultural
component, it cannot define its role solely on an understanding of its cultural
importance, but must respond to the challenge to become relevant to demands of
the employment market or ‘berufsrelevant’
(Wierlacher 1980: 19; Picht 1987; Waite 1992: 21).
The
responses of the discipline to the challenges posed by globalisation and
internationalisation show that the development of the applied dimension(s) has
been of major significance in recent years. New Zealand requires graduates who
are competent foreign language specialists with area specific knowledge and who
can apply their skills and competencies to niche markets. The discipline must,
therefore, encourage combinations of skills, adaptability, innovation and
flexibility, given the ever changing international market, the development of
international cooperation and communication and the rapid political and economic
reforms. Integrated programmes combining the study of German with other
vocationally-oriented disciplines are a logical way forward, and one that would
promote the education of future intermediaries between New Zealand and the
German-speaking countries (Hess 1999b: 181; Reichert 1999: 824-826).
In
order to maximise the effectiveness, attractiveness and potential of the
discipline in New Zealand, the discipline needs to develop two clear foci,
which would do justice to both its cultural/literary mission and its functional
role in the labour market. One would continue to focus on Germanistik proper,
that is, the study of language and literature, while the other would specialise
in the applied dimensions of German Studies, including specifically targeted language
courses and integrated programmes in Intercultural Studies and European
Studies. This model reflects recent changes in the political, economic and
linguistic environment as well as those in education both nationally and
internationally. Such an approach, with increased emphasis on the recognition
of the vocational potential of the discipline, would ensure its productive
development and greatly enhance the value of the subject from a national
perspective. This model could also be adapted by other countries in the region
given the similarities in the changing parameters and the challenges faced
during the past two decades.
The
primary advantages of the creation of two foci or programmes (perhaps housed in
two centres) are:
· it would provide a critical mass in
terms of student numbers;[13]
· it would allow for the pooling of
staffing resources, thereby guaranteeing adequate research and teaching
capacity, and with this internationally acceptable levels of
professionalisation;
· the model would make the most productive
use of limited financial resources in the current context of tertiary education
in New Zealand;
· the model would offer students
clearly focused study and career perspectives; and
· the model would allow a flexible
response to future changes in market demand;
The
most significant disadvantage of this model is that it would create a situation
where not all students had access to full German Studies programmes at all
This
model is, of course, not the only possibility globally, as countries such as
the United States, Canada and even China can clearly afford to offer a greater
range of programmes both on account of their population size and the financial
resources available. This does not, however, obviate the need to identify
specific objectives, particularly in small countries such as New Zealand.
Global trends in German Studies confirm the view that clear objectives and a
concentration of academic and financial resources would unlock the considerable
potential of the discipline of German Studies and enhance its contribution(s)
to New Zealand.
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Biodata
Kristina
McGuiness-King is currently Academic
Administrator for the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the
[1] This article comprises part of
the research undertaken towards my PhD: Towards
a Functional Definition of German Studies: New Zealand and the International
Context, University of Waikato (in prep.).
[2] This contribution on the
development of German Studies in selected Asian-Pacific countries can be seen
as part of the ongoing discussion in GFL
on the changing context in which the discipline functions internationally and
the responses to these challenges. It follows articles about the development of Germanistik and German Studies
in Great Britain by N. Reeves (GFL
1/2000), N. Pachler (GFL 2/2001), G. Reershemius (GFL 3/2001) and J. Grix and S. Jaworska
(GFL 3/2002).
[3] For a
detailed discussion of the effects of these trends, such as the marketisation
and reform of the education systems in the countries included in this study and
a comprehensive list of references, see McGuiness-King (in prep.).
[4] Cf. http://www.otago.ac.nz/german/German/GermanDept/Skills.html
(6 March 2001).
[5] In South Korea, however, despite the discussions
about Intercultural German Studies, very few (if any) such programmes or
courses have been developed during the past two decades.
[6] Cf. http://www.arts.uwa.edu.au/EuropeanWWW/es/UnderPost.html
(5 July 2001).
[7] ‘Culture’ includes areas such as
Screen and Media Studies, Linguistics, Philosophy, English, Drama, Art History,
Music, Religious Studies.
[8] http://www.arts.auckland.ac.nz/sell/germanic/
(6 March 2001).
[9] Courses in the
third area were (and are) taught entirely in English.
[10] Cf.
http://www.grmn.canterbury.ac.nz/GRMN301.html
(17 September 1997).
[11] Cf. http://www.goethe.de/an/mel/network.htm (23 May 2001).
[12] Cf. http://www.adelaide.edu.au/cesagl/germhb.html
(24 May 2001).
[13] The concept of
‘centres of excellence’ or competencies at the tertiary level is favoured by
the current New Zealand government, so departments and universities may be
forced to implement such ‘foci’ in the near future. The issue of critical mass
of student numbers and teaching and research capabilities is, therefore, an
integral factor when considering the future structuring of German programmes in
New Zealand.